Move aside Gutenberg, Korea made an earlier printed document

Korean Heritage

Published: 12 Apr. 2023, 19:58

Move aside Gutenberg, Korea made an earlier printed document

Jikji inside a showcase at the BnF, or the National Library of France in paris, for the first time in 50 years. [YONHAP]

“1377: Printing of Jikji in Korea, the oldest known dated text printed with movable metal type.”

Many European visitors to “Printing! Gutenberg’s Europe,” a new exhibit at the BnF, or the National Library of France, that kicked off on April 12 in Paris, may be surprised to discover that it’s not Gutenberg’s 42-Line Bible that was the earliest book printed with movable metal type, but actually the old book from Korea written in Chinese characters, known as Jikji.

As one of its prized possessions, the BnF decided to bring Korea’s Jikji, or Jikjisimcheyojeol, out of storage for the first time in 50 years and showcase it to visitors at the exhibition that focuses on the history of printing technology and how it revolutionized human history. The last time the important Korean cultural heritage was showcased was in 1973.

Hwang Tae-yeon, an honorary professor at Dongguk University’s department of political science, says it’s great to see Jikji being exhibited for the first time in 50 years — a testament to the power of Korean culture. But at the same time, Hwang says it’s important to not forget that Jikji is only the “oldest preserved work printed with movable metal type, not the first book printed using the technique," which, he added, was "invented not by Gutenberg, obviously, but by Koreans.”

Reporters take pictures of Jikji as it's being revealed during the press preview on April 11 at the BnF. [YONHAP]

According to Hwang, the earliest book printed using the metal movable type is "Nammyeong Cheon Hwasangsong Jeungdoga" (Song of Enlightenment with Commentaries by Buddhist Monk Nammyeong) in 1211.

“It’s just that there’s no surviving copy, only in records,” said Hwang. “But it proves that Koreans used metal movable type 234 years before Gutenberg, and this is an opportunity to let the world know that it was Korea that invented the movable metal type printing and that it had been used since the Goryeo Dynasty [918-1392], 200 years before the West,” said Hwang.

Hwang recently published a two-volume book titled “The Publication Revolution of Joseon, a Nation of Books,” which contains a complete list of books — 14,117 — that were published with metal type during the 500 years of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910).

“Considering the fact that Goryeo traded with Quanzhou, China, the center of the Maritime Silk Road, and that Quanzhou at the time also came from the West to trade, it is correct to say that Goryeo’s metal type technology moved over to the West and that the West was influenced by Korea. In other words, Gutenberg copied Korean metal type printing technology. I don’t believe the BnF mentions that in the exhibition.”

The cover of Jikji that is in the BnF's collection has a handwriting of Collin de Plancy, the first collector of Jikji, which says "The oldest Korean book known to be printed with molded type, date=1377" written in French. [BNF]

In fact, BnF’s introduction for the exhibition reads: “The exhibition aims to put Gutenberg’s invention into context by pointing out, among other things, that printing methods already existed. In China and Korea, xylography was practiced as early as the 8th century, and it is from Korea, with Jikji, that comes from the oldest preserved work printed with movable metal type, similar to the process used in Mainz more than seventy years later. Although Gutenberg was probably unaware of this Korean invention, he was able to look to techniques and practices that also existed in Europe, where it was possible to print and reproduce images from around 1400 onwards using an engraved matrix, first on wood, then on copper.”

“It just makes no sense to not introduce the printing revolution of Goryeo and Joseon when talking about the history of printing and even Gutenberg’s version of the printing press,” said Hwang. “In the late Joseon Dynasty, 4 to 5 million copies of books had to be printed a year. This is because so many books were consumed by the 80,000 seodang [village Confucian schools], monks and scholars across the country. For this reason, the printing technology that uses metal types and woodblocks had to be established early on. That is why I confidently say the publishing revolution took place first in Korea, not in the West.”

Korea was indeed a land of printing, be it woodblock or metal movable type.

Being a small country, Korean was invaded, robbed and distorted throughout history. Historians say it was important for Koreans to "record and leave behind every little detail in order to survive in such an atmosphere."

Take Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, for example. It records by text and by illustrations what kings ate, did and said.

In order to create exact copies of important books, they first began transcribing. But in order to be more efficient, Koreans rapidly developed printing technology.

Woodblock print was useful in printing the same book in large quantities, while metal movable type was useful in printing different types of books in a short amount of time. Both techniques mutually complemented the different needs of Koreans, who published so many books.

It was during this time, after the development of the printing technique using metal movable type, that Jikji, which survives even to this day at BnF, was printed in 1377.

The restored version of metal movable type for Jikji is on display at the lobby of the Jikji Cheongju Early Printing Museum in Cheongju. [YONHAP]

But what is Jikji, and why is it at BnF and not in Korea?

Jikji is a book containing the essentials of Zen Buddhism. In English, it can be translated as “Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings.” It was written by a monk named Baegun Hwasang and his disciples Seokcan and Daldam during the late Goryeo Dynasty, when Buddhism was becoming corrupt, turning into a religion practiced by the privileged classes like the royals and nobles.

Slowly, Confucianism was being introduced, and historians presume that is why monk Baegun Hwasang decided to write a book that properly conveys Buddhist teachings, as a last-ditch attempt to propagate the religion. It was only after his passing that the book — Jikji — was able to be printed and distributed across the country by his disciples Seokcan and Daldam. It is said that a female Buddhist monk named Myodeok, who was from a wealthy family, helped them mass print the book. The book has two volumes, and the complete text in woodblock print is held at the National Library of Korea and the Academy of Korean Studies. The BnF has only the second volume of the metal movable type version.

It’s not known exactly when or how, but Jikji somehow got in the hands of Victor Collin de Plancy, the first French consul to Korea, in the 1900s. He was a rare book collector, and in 1911 he sold the book to another antique collector named Henri Vever for 180 francs at an auction. When Vever died, his collections, including Jikji, were donated to the National Library of France in 1952.

Before Park Byeong-seon (1929-2011), a renowned librarian and historian, found Jikji in 1972 at the National Library of France, the international community believed the 42-line Gutenberg Bible (printed in 1455) was the first book printed using movable types. Besides Jikji, some earlier metal type printings are mentioned in the old Korean historical documents. [JOONGANG ILBO]

Jikji had been buried among unsorted old documents at the BnF storage until Park Byeong-seon, the late Korean librarian and historian who worked at the BnF from 1967 to 1980, discovered the book in 1972. In 2001, it was listed as a Unesco Memory of the World and was acknowledged as the oldest known document to have been printed using metal movable type.

Many Koreans are hopeful that Jikji may some day travel to Korea to be exhibited in its motherland for its people.

Kim Jeong-hee, the head of the Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation, said during the press conference held at the BnF a day before the opening of the exhibition on April 11 that she believes “there will be a valuable opportunity in the future to see Jikji in person in Korea, if we collaborate with this exhibition and build a good relationship of trust.”

Chae So-hee, Director of the Cultural Heritage Utilization Office of the Cultural Heritage Administration, left, and Laurence Engel, director of BnF, pose for a photo after signing a memorandum of understanding on April 11 that allows the administration to help support the exhibition. [NEWS1]

The Cultural Heritage Administration on the same day announced it signed a memorandum of understanding with the BnF that will allow the administration to support the exhibition, which will run until July 16. The “collaboration," as stated in the agreement, includes holding conferences or symposiums in relation to the exhibition, providing necessary translations for the exhibition and cooperating including carrying out promotional activities for the exhibition and conducting academic surveys and research projects. Notably, however, it does not mention anything about a potential Jikji exhibit in Korea.

Koreans may be chasing waterfalls.

When Korean reporters at the press conference asked Laurence Engel, the director of BnF, if the library has any plans to exhibit Jikji in Korea, she said she can’t say anything at that moment, but added that Jikji is one of the most precious items in BnF’s collection and is treated accordingly: Every effort is made to keep its handling and movement to a minimum, and that rare books like Jikji do not get exhibited that often.

BY YIM SEUNG-HYE [yim.seunghye@joongang.co.kr]